Атлас искусственного интеллекта: руководство для будущего - заметки
1
Heyn, «Berlin’s Wonderful Horse.»
2
Pfungst, Clever Hans.
3
«Clever Hans’ Again.»
4
Pfungst, Clever Hans.
5
Pfungst.
6
Lapuschkin et al., «Unmasking Clever Hans Predictors.»
7
See the work of philosopher Val Plumwood on the dualisms of intelligence-stupid, emotional-rational, and master-slave. Plumwood, «Politics of Reason.»
8
Turing, «Computing Machinery and Intelligence.»
9
Von Neumann, The Computer and the Brain, 44. This approach was deeply critiqued by Dreyfus, What Computers Can’t Do.
10
See Weizenbaum, «On the Impact of the Computer on Society,» After his death, Minsky was implicated in serious allegations related to convicted pedophile and rapist Jeffrey Epstein. Minsky was one of several scientists who met with Epstein and visited his island retreat where underage girls were forced to have sex with members of Epstein’s coterie. As scholar Meredith Broussard observes, this was part of a broader culture of exclusion that became endemic in AI: «As wonderfully creative as Minsky and his cohort were, they also solidified the culture of tech as a billionaire boys’ club. Math, physics, and the other ‘hard’ sciences have never been hospitable to women and people of color; tech followed this lead.» See Broussard, Artificial Unintelligence, 174.
11
Weizenbaum, Computer Power and Human Reason, 202–3.
12
Greenberger, Management and the Computer of the Future, 315.
13
Dreyfus, Alchemy and Artificial Intelligence.
14
Dreyfus, What Computers Can’t Do.
15
Ullman, Life in Code, 136–37.
16
See, as one of many examples, Poggio et al., «Why and When Can Deep – but Not Shallow – Networks Avoid the Curse of Dimensionality.»
17
Quoted in Gill, Artificial Intelligence for Society, 3.
18
Russell and Norvig, Artificial Intelligence, 30.
19
Daston, «Cloud Physiognomy.»
20
Didi-Huberman, Atlas, 5.
21
Didi-Huberman, 11.
22
Franklin and Swenarchuk, Ursula Franklin Reader, Prelude.
23
For an account of the practices of data colonization, see «Colonized by Data»; and Mbembé, Critique of Black Reason.
24
Fei-Fei Li quoted in Gershgorn, «Data That Transformed AI Research.»
25
Russell and Norvig, Artificial Intelligence, 1.
26
Bledsoe quoted in McCorduck, Machines Who Think, 136.
27
Mattern, Code and Clay, Data and Dirt, xxxiv-xxxv.
28
Ananny and Crawford, «Seeing without Knowing.»
29
Any list will always be an inadequate account of all the people and communities who have inspired and informed this work. I’m particularly grateful to these research communities: FATE (Fairness, Accountability, Transparency and Ethics) and the Social Media Collective at Microsoft Research, the AI Now Institute at NYU, the Foundations of AI working group at the École Normale Supérieure, and the Richard von Weizsäcker Visiting Fellows at the Robert Bosch Academy in Berlin.
30
Saville, «Towards Humble Geographies.»
31
For more on crowdworkers, see Gray and Suri, Ghost Work; and Roberts, Behind the Screen.
32
Canales, Tenth of a Second.
33
Zuboff, Age of Surveillance Capitalism.
34
Cetina, Epistemic Cultures, 3.
35
«Emotion Detection and Recognition (EDR) Market Size.»
36
Nelson, Tu, and Hines, «Introduction,» 5.
37
Danowski and de Castro, Ends of the World.
38
Franklin, Real World of Technology, 5.
39
Brechin, Imperial San Francisco.
40
Brechin, 29.
41
Agricola quoted in Brechin, 25.
42
Quoted in Brechin, 50.
43
Brechin, 69.
44
See, e. g., Davies and Young, Tales from the Dark Side of the City; and «Grey Goldmine.»
45
For more on the street-level changes in San Francisco, see Bloomfield, «History of the California Historical Society’s New Mission Street Neighborhood.»
46
«Street Homelessness.» See also «Counterpoints: An Atlas of Displacement and Resistance.»
47
Gee, «San Francisco or Mumbai?»
48
H. W. Turner published a detailed geological survey of the Silver Peak area in July 1909. In beautiful prose, Turner extolled the geological variety within what he described as «slopes of cream and pink tuffs, and little hillocks of a bright brick red.» Turner, «Contribution to the Geology of the Silver Peak Quadrangle, Nevada,» 228.
49
Lambert, «Breakdown of Raw Materials in Tesla’s Batteries and Possible Breaknecks.»
50
Bullis, «Lithium-Ion Battery.»
51
«Chinese Lithium Giant Agrees to Three-Year Pact to Supply Tesla.»
52
Wald, «Tesla Is a Battery Business.»
53
Scheyder, «Tesla Expects Global Shortage.»
54
Wade, «Tesla’s Electric Cars Aren’t as Green.»
55
Business Council for Sustainable Energy, «2019 Sustainable Energy in America Factbook.» U. S. Energy Information Administration, «What Is U. S. Electricity Generation by Energy Source?»
56
Whittaker et al., AI Now Report 2018.
57
Parikka, Geology of Media, vii – viii; McLuhan, Understanding Media.
58
Ely, «Life Expectancy of Electronics.»
59
Sandro Mezzadra and Brett Neilson use the term «extractivism» to name the relation between different forms of extractive operations in contemporary capitalism, which we see repeated in the context of the AI industry. Mezzadra and Neilson, «Multiple Frontiers of Extraction.»
60
Nassar et al., «Evaluating the Mineral Commodity Supply Risk of the US Manufacturing Sector.»
61
Mumford, Technics and Civilization, 74.
62
See, e. g., Ayogu and Lewis, «Conflict Minerals.»
63
Burke, «Congo Violence Fuels Fears of Return to 90s Bloodbath.»
64
«Congo ’s Bloody Coltan.»
65
«Congo ’s Bloody Coltan.»
66
«Transforming Intel’s Supply Chain with Real-Time Analytics.»
67
See, e. g., an open letter from seventy signatories that criticizes the limitations of the so-called conflict-free certification process: «An Open Letter.»
68
«Responsible Minerals Policy and Due Diligence.»
69
In The Elements of Power, David S. Abraham describes the invisible networks of rare metals traders in global electronics supply chains: «The network to get rare metals from the mine to your laptop travels through a murky network of traders, processors, and component manufacturers. Traders are the middlemen who do more than buy and sell rare metals: they help to regulate information and are the hidden link that helps in navigating the network between metals plants and the components in our laptops» [89].
70
«Responsible Minerals Sourcing.»
71
Liu, «Chinese Mining Dump.»
72
«Bayan Obo Deposit.»
73
Maughan, «Dystopian Lake Filled by the World’s Tech Lust.»
74
Hird, «Waste, Landfills, and an Environmental Ethics of Vulnerability,» 105.
75
Abraham, Elements of Power, 175.
76
Abraham, 176.
77
Simpson, «Deadly Tin Inside Your Smartphone.»
78
Hodal, «Death Metal.»
79
Hodal.
80
Tully, «Victorian Ecological Disaster.»
81
Starosielski, Undersea Network, 34.
82
See Couldry and Mejías, Costs of Connection, 46.
83
Couldry and Mejías, 574.
84
For a superb account of the history of undersea cables, see Starosielski, Undersea Network.
85
Dryer, «Designing Certainty,» 45.
86
Dryer, 46.
87
Dryer, 266-68.
88
More people are now drawing attention to this problem – including researchers at AI Now. See Dobbe and Whittaker, «AI and Climate Change.»
89
See, as an example of early scholarship in this area, Ensmenger, «Computation, Materiality, and the Global Environment.»
90
Hu, Prehistory of the Cloud, 146.
91
Jones, «How to Stop Data Centres from Gobbling Up the World’s Electricity.» Some progress has been made toward mitigating these concerns through greater energy efficiency practices, but significant long-term challenges remain. Masanet et al., «Recalibrating Global Data Center Energy – Use Estimates.»
92
Belkhir and Elmeligi, «Assessing ICT Global Emissions Footprint»; Andrae and Edler, «On Global Electricity Usage.»
93
Strubell, Ganesh, and McCallum, «Energy and Policy Considerations for Deep Learning in NLP.»
94
Strubell, Ganesh, and McCallum.
95
Sutton, «Bitter Lesson.»
96
«AI and Compute.»
97
Cook et al., Clicking Clean.
98
Ghaffary, «More Than 1,000 Google Employees Signed a Letter.» See also «Apple Commits to Be 100 Percent Carbon Neutral»; Harrabin, «Google Says Its Carbon Footprint Is Now Zero»; Smith, «Microsoft Will Be Carbon Negative by 2030.»
99
«Powering the Cloud.»
100
«Powering the Cloud.»
101
«Powering the Cloud.»
102
Hogan, «Data Flows and Water Woes.»
103
«Off Now.»
104
Carlisle, «Shutting Off NSA’s Water Gains Support.»
105
Materiality is a complex concept, and there is a lengthy literature that contends with it in such fields as STS, anthropology, and media studies. In one sense, materiality refers to what Leah Lievrouw describes as «the physical character and existence of objects and artifacts that makes them useful and usable for certain purposes under particular conditions.» Lievrouw quoted in Gillespie, Boczkowski, and Foot, Media Technologies, 25. But as Diana Coole and Samantha Frost write, «Materiality is always something more than ‘mere’ matter: an excess, force, vitality, relationality, or difference that renders matter active, self-creative, productive, unproductive.» Coole and Frost, New Materialisms, 9.
106
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, Review of Maritime Transport, 2017.
107
George, Ninety Percent of Everything, 4.
108
Schlanger, «If Shipping Were a Country.»
109
Vidal, «Health Risks of Shipping Pollution.»
110
«Containers Lost at Sea–2017 Update.»
111
Adams, «Lost at Sea.»
112
Mumford, Myth of the Machine.
113
Labban, «Deterritorializing Extraction.» For an expansion on this idea, see Arboleda, Planetary Mine.
114
Ananny and Crawford, «Seeing without Knowing.»
115
Wilson, «Amazon and Target Race.»
116
Lingel and Crawford, «Alexa, Tell Me about Your Mother.»
117
Federici, Wages against Housework; Gregg, Counterproductive.
118
In The Utopia of Rules, David Graeber details the sense of loss experienced by white-collar workers who now have to enter data into the decision-making systems that have replaced specialist administrative support staff in most professional workplaces.
119
Smith, Wealth of Nations, 4–5.
120
Marx and Engels, Marx-Engels Reader, 479. Marx expanded on this notion of the worker as an «appendage» in Capital, vol. 1: «In handicrafts and manufacture, the worker makes use of a tool; in the factory, the machine makes use of him. There the movements of the instrument of labor proceed from him, here it is the movements of the machine that he must follow. In manufacture the workers are parts of a living mechanism. In the factory we have a lifeless mechanism which is independent of the workers, who are incorporated into it as its living appendages.» Marx, Das Kapital, 548–49.
121
Luxemburg, «Practical Economies,» 444.
122
Thompson, «Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism.»
123
Thompson, 88–90.
124
Werrett, «Potemkin and the Panopticon,» 6.
125
See, e. g., Cooper, «Portsmouth System of Manufacture.»
126
Foucault, Discipline and Punish; Horne and Maly, Inspection House.
127
Mirzoeff, Right to Look, 58.
128
Mirzoeff, 55.
129
Mirzoeff, 56.
130
Gray and Suri, Ghost Work.
131
Irani, «Hidden Faces of Automation.»
132
Yuan, «How Cheap Labor Drives China’s A. I. Ambitions»; Gray and Suri, «Humans Working behind the AI Curtain.»
133
Berg et al., Digital Labour Platforms.
134
Roberts, Behind the Screen; Gillespie, Custodians of the Internet, 111–40.
135
Silberman et al., «Responsible Research with Crowds.»
136
Silberman et al.
137
Huet, «Humans Hiding behind the Chatbots.»
138
Huet.
139
See Sadowski, «Potemkin AI.»
140
Taylor, «Automation Charade.»
141
Taylor.
142
Gray and Suri, Ghost Work.
143
Standage, Turk, 23.
144
Standage, 23.
145
See, e. g., Aytes, «Return of the Crowds,» 80.
146
Irani, «Difference and Dependence among Digital Workers,» 225.
147
Pontin, «Artificial Intelligence.»
148
Menabrea and Lovelace, «Sketch of the Analytical Engine.»
149
Babbage, On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures, 39–43.
150
Babbage evidently acquired an interest in quality-control processes while trying (vainly) to establish a reliable supply chain for the components of his calculating engines.
151
Schaffer, «Babbage’s Calculating Engines and the Factory System,» 280.
152
Taylor, People’s Platform, 42.
153
Katz and Krueger, «Rise and Nature of Alternative Work Arrangements.»
154
Rehmann, «Taylorism and Fordism in the Stockyards,» 26.
155
Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital, 56, 67; Specht, Red Meat Republic.
156
Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management.
157
Marx, Poverty of Philosophy, 22.
158
Qiu, Gregg, and Crawford, «Circuits of Labour»; Qiu, Goodbye iSlave.
159
Markoff, «Skilled Work, without the Worker.»
160
Guendelsberger, On the Clock, 22.
161
Greenhouse, «McDonald’s Workers File Wage Suits.»
162
Greenhouse.
163
Mayhew and Quinlan, «Fordism in the Fast Food Industry.»
164
Ajunwa, Crawford, and Schultz, «Limitless Worker Surveillance.»
165
Mikel, «WeWork Just Made a Disturbing Acquisition.»
166
Mahdawi, «Domino’s ‘Pizza Checker’ Is Just the Beginning.»
167
Wajcman, «How Silicon Valley Sets Time.»
168
Wajcman, 1277.
169
Gora, Herzog, and Tripathi, «Clock Synchronization.»
170
Eglash, «Broken Metaphor,» 361.
171
Kemeny and Kurtz, «Dartmouth Timesharing,» 223.
172
Eglash, «Broken Metaphor,» 364.
173
Brewer, «Spanner, TrueTime.»
174
Corbett et al., «Spanner,» 14, cited in House, «Synchronizing Uncertainty,» 124.
175
Galison, Einstein’s Clocks, Poincaré’s Maps, 104.
176
Galison, 112.
177
Colligan and Linley, «Media, Technology, and Literature,» 246.